Pashtuns

Lore & Background

Pashtuns speak the Pashto language, which belongs to the Eastern Iranian branch of the Iranian language family. The dialect of Wanetsi is spoken mainly among Pashtuns of the Tareen tribe in Pakistan, and Ormuri among non-Pashtun Ormur people and Wazir Pashtuns. Additionally, Dari serves as the second language of Pashtuns in Afghanistan, while those in Pakistan speak Urdu and English. In India, the majority of those of Pashtun descent have lost the ability to speak Pashto and instead speak Hindi and other regional languages, while those in Iran primarily speak Southern Pashto, and Persian as a second language.

Pashtuns are spread over a wide geographic area, south of the Amu river and west of the Indus River. Big cities with a Pashtun majority include Jalalabad, Kandahar, Bannu, Dera Ismail Khan, Khost, Kohat, Lashkar Gah, Mardan, Ghazni, Mingora, Peshawar, Quetta, among others. The city of Karachi, the financial capital of Pakistan, is home to the world's largest urban community of Pashtuns, larger than those of Kabul and Peshawar. In India, significant and historical communities of the Pashtun diaspora exist in the northern region of Rohilkhand, as well as in major Indian cities such as Delhi and Mumbai.

Pashtuns are also found in smaller numbers in the eastern and northern parts of Iran. Records as early as the mid-1600s report Durrani Pashtuns living in the Khorasan province of Safavid Iran. Indian and Pakistani Pashtuns have utilized the British/Commonwealth links of their respective countries, and modern communities have been established starting around the 1960s mainly in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia but also in other commonwealth countries (and the United States).

Reader's Guide

Pashtuns constitute the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan and the second-largest in Pakistan, with a population estimated between 60 and 70 million, though this figure is disputed due to the lack of an official census in Afghanistan since 1979. Their significance lies in their role as the world's largest tribal society, with 350–400 tribes and numerous sub-tribes, and their historical identification with the term 'Afghan' before the 1923 constitution broadened that demonym to all citizens of Afghanistan. The Pashtun diaspora is substantial: in India, estimates of ethnic Pashtun population range from 3.2 million to as high as 30 million, with major communities in Rohilkhand, Mumbai, and Delhi; in Iran, remnants of exiled Ghilji and Durrani Pashtuns remain; and global communities exist in the UK, Canada, Australia, the United States, and the Persian Gulf. Pashtuns have influenced politics, entertainment, and sports in India, and their language, Pashto, is an Eastern Iranian language with dialects such as Wanetsi and Ormuri. The ancient tribe Pakthās, mentioned in the Rigveda (c. 1500–1200 BCE), and the Pactyans described by Herodotus in 430 BCE, are often connected to the Pashtuns, indicating a deep historical presence in the region.

Did You Know?

• Pashtuns are also known as Pakhtuns and Pathans, and were historically referred to as Afghans until the 1923 constitution of Afghanistan.
• The city of Karachi, Pakistan, is home to the world's largest urban community of Pashtuns, larger than those of Kabul and Peshawar.
• In India, the Rohilkhand region is named after the Rohilla community of Pashtun ancestry, and the population of Pathans in India is estimated to be twice that in Afghanistan.
• A tribe called Pakthās, possibly connected to Pashtuns, is mentioned in the Rigveda (c. 1500–1200 BCE), and Herodotus wrote of Pactyans in 430 BCE.

Identity, Naming, and the Question of Belonging

The Pashtuns have been known by multiple names throughout history—Pakhtuns, Pathans, and, in earlier periods, simply Afghans. This multiplicity of labels reflects a complex relationship between ethnic identity and political nationhood. For centuries, the term Afghan was closely associated with Pashtun identity, but that changed in 1923 when Afghanistan's constitution formally adopted Afghans as a national demonym encompassing all citizens regardless of ethnic background. The move was explicitly designed to forge a unified Afghan national identity beyond any single tribe or group. In the Indian subcontinent, the community typically calls itself Pathans, a Hindustani rendering of the name, and in certain regions they are also known by the colloquial term Kabuliwala. This layered nomenclature—shifting between Pashtun, Pathan, Afghan, and Rohilla depending on geography and historical context—reveals how a single people have been continuously renegotiated by the states and societies around them, making identity itself a living, contested terrain rather than a fixed category.

A Language in Motion: Pashto and Its Dialects

Pashto sits within the Eastern Iranian branch of the Iranian language family, yet its spoken reality is far more varied than a single tongue suggests. Among the Tareen tribe in Pakistan, the Wanetsi dialect carries its own distinct character, while the Ormuri variety is shared between non-Pashtun Ormur communities and Wazir Pashtuns. Beyond the mother tongue, Pashtuns navigate a multilingual world shaped by their geography. In Afghanistan, Dari functions as a widely used second language; in Pakistan, Urdu and English fill that role. In Iran, Pashtun communities in Khorasan and surrounding areas tend to speak Southern Pashto alongside Persian. The most striking linguistic shift, however, occurred in India, where the majority of those of Pashtun descent have, over generations, lost fluency in Pashto and now speak Hindi, Urdu, or other regional languages. A 2011 census recorded only 21,677 Pashto speakers in the entire country, a stark contrast to estimates of the broader ancestral Pashtun population that stretch into the tens of millions. Language has become the most fragile thread connecting diaspora communities to their origins.

The World's Largest Tribal Society

Few ethnic groups on Earth can claim the scale of Pashtun tribal organization. With an estimated population between sixty and seventy million spread across roughly three hundred fifty to four hundred distinct tribes—and countless sub-tribes beneath them—the Pashtuns constitute what is widely recognized as the largest tribal society in the world. The 2021 estimate by Shahid Javed Burki placed the total at sixty to seventy million, with fifteen million residing in Afghanistan, a figure echoed by British academic Tim Willasey-Wilsey and Afghan-affairs journalist Abubakar Siddique. Yet even these numbers carry a grain of uncertainty, because Afghanistan has not conducted an official census since 1979, a gap caused by decades of continuous conflict. Demographically, Pashtuns are the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan, making up roughly thirty-seven to forty-seven percent of the national population, and the second-largest in Pakistan at approximately fifteen point four percent. The sheer breadth of this tribal mosaic—spanning two sovereign nations and stretching into diaspora communities on multiple continents—makes any single count an incomplete portrait of a people whose social architecture is as vast as it is ancient.

Scattered Across Continents: The Pashtun Diaspora

From the sugarcane fields of Trinidad to the financial districts of Karachi, the Pashtun diaspora stretches across an astonishing geographic canvas. In Pakistan, Karachi hosts the world's largest urban Pashtun community, surpassing even Kabul and Peshawar, while Islamabad's population is more than twenty percent Pashto-speaking. In India, the legacy runs deep: the Rohilkhand region of Uttar Pradesh takes its very name from the Rohilla Pashtun settlers, and cities like Mumbai and Calcutta each shelter communities exceeding one million of Pashtun ancestry, with Jaipur and Bangalore adding roughly one hundred thousand each. The diaspora's reach extends further still. During the nineteenth century, Rohilla laborers were dispatched as indentured workers to Trinidad, Surinam, Guyana, and Fiji, and some even made their way to Australia, where many eventually assimilated into broader South Asian Muslim communities, gradually losing their distinctive heritage. In Iran, Durrani Pashtuns have been documented in Khorasan province since the mid-seventeenth century, and the Ghilji tribe briefly held power there before Nader Shah's conquest. This scattered yet persistent presence underscores a people whose story cannot be contained by any single border.